In the last 15 years, terms
such as prostitution, sex trafficking, sexual exploitation, modern-day slavery,
and sex work have elicited much confusion and debate as to their definitions.
Consequently several challenges have emerged for both law enforcement in the
prosecution of criminals and practitioners in service provision. This article
reviews the state of the literature with regard to domestic, sexual
exploitation among women and girls in the United States and seeks to (1)
provide definitions and describe the complexity of all terms relating to
domestic sexual exploitation of women and girls in the United States, (2)
explore available national prevalence data according to the definitions provided,
and (3) review the evidence of mental health, social, and structural risk
factors at the micro-, mezzo-, and macrolevels…
In conjunction with sexual abuse and assault, other forms of
nonsexual trauma, such as physical and emotional abuse, are also important risk
factors to consider. One study of 278 sex workers in Miami found that 51% of
their sample had experienced physical abuse and 65% had experienced emotional
abuse, in addition to 53% who had experienced sexual abuse (Surratt,
Kurtz, Weaver, & Inciardi, 2005). Childhood emotional abuse is
also significantly associated with commercial sexual exploitation and may
contribute to a younger age of entry into prostitution (Roe-Sepowitz, 2012).
Subsequent to victims’ trauma and abuse previously
experienced before exploitation, research also supports that victims of sexual
exploitation endure several forms of victimization during or in addition to
ongoing sexual exploitation. One study examining health outcomes among
domestic, sexually trafficked victims found that most victims had experienced
physical violence (88.9%), sexual violence (83.3%), and psychological violence
(100%) during sexual exploitation (Muftic & Finn, 2013). Additionally, a
sexually exploited girl or woman will have a greater likelihood of exposure to
violence and abuse from a pimp and/or someone purchasing sex from them. The
additional control and coercion of sexual exploitation by a pimp also
promulgates additional exposure to threatened or actualized assault or other
forms of trauma. Of the 71 women controlled by a pimp in a Chicago study, 21%
were threatened to be raped and more than half reported to have been sexually
assaulted (Raphael, Reichert, & Powers, 2010).
PTSD and Depression
Exposure to various forms of violence is empirically
linked to levels of PTSD and depression. Two multicountry studies examined
issues of depression and PTSD among sex trafficking victims and found
significant associations between these mental health issues and trafficking. Hossain and her research team (2010) found
that more than half of the 204 trafficking victims interviewed across 12
countries met criteria for depression, and 77% had symptoms of PTSD. Although
this well-known study was not conducted in the United States, it is frequently
referenced in domestic literature and must be addressed accordingly. The second
study found a 68% (n =
562) rate of PTSD across all sexually trafficked participants from nine
countries and 69% (n = 87)
among U.S. victims (Farley
et al., 2004).
On a smaller scale, several domestic studies have
found similar associations and prevalence rates of PTSD among sexually
exploited women. Several studies of 100 participants or fewer showed that
female victims of sexual exploitation experience rates of PTSD ranging from 27%
(Wells
& Mitchell, 2007) to 50% (Twill
et al., 2010). Similarly, these types of studies showed depression
rates of up to 60% (Roe-Sepowitz, 2012). Given the extreme trauma
that victims of sexual exploitation face and the empirical link between trauma
and PTSD as well as depression, high rates of mental health consequences
unfortunately are expected in this population.
…Many domestic victims of
sexual exploitation are vulnerable youth who are already involved in the foster
care system (Fong & Berger Cardoso,
2010).
Involvement in the foster care system may stem from child abuse and neglect (Miller et al., 2011) or from the loss of a parent through death,
divorce, or abandonment (Clawson et al., 2009). Youth who are considered to live in “out of
home” placements—including youth shelters, group homes, and foster care—are at
greater risk of becoming victims of sexual exploitation (Rafferty, 2013). Qualitatively, many sexually exploited women
and girls report themes of isolation and lack of connection and resources, often
stemming from the child welfare system, foster care placements, and abandonment
(Farley, 2004; Rabinovitch, 2008; Ugarte, Zarate, & Farley, 2003)…
Full article at: http://goo.gl/1Y4GFg
By:
Brown School of
Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
Address correspondence to Lara Gerassi, Brown School of
Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA. Email: ude.ltsuw@issaregl.
Published online 2015 Apr 9. doi: 10.1080/10911359.2014.991055
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