Body Satisfaction and Physical Appearance in Gender Dysphoria

Gender dysphoria (GD) is often accompanied by dissatisfaction with physical appearance and body image problems. The aim of this study was to compare body satisfaction with perceived appearance by others in various GD subgroups. 

Data collection was part of the European Network for the Investigation of Gender Incongruence. Between 2007 and 2012, 660 adults who fulfilled the criteria of the DSM-IV gender identity disorder diagnosis (1.31:1 male-to-female [MtF]:female-to-male [FtM] ratio) were included into the study. Data were collected before the start of clinical gender-confirming interventions. Sexual orientation was measured via a semi-structured interview whereas onset age was based on clinician report. Body satisfaction was assessed using the Body Image Scale. Congruence of appearance with the experienced gender was measured by means of a clinician rating. 

Overall, FtMs had a more positive body image than MtFs. Besides genital dissatisfaction, problem areas for MtFs included posture, face, and hair, whereas FtMs were mainly dissatisfied with hip and chest regions. Clinicians evaluated the physical appearance to be more congruent with the experienced gender in FtMs than in MtFs. Within the MtF group, those with early onset GD and an androphilic sexual orientation had appearances more in line with their gender identity. In conclusion, body image problems in GD go beyond sex characteristics only. 

An incongruent physical appearance may result in more difficult psychological adaptation and in more exposure to discrimination and stigmatization.

Full article at:   http://goo.gl/h6yHWx

By:  van de Grift TC1,2, Cohen-Kettenis PT3, Steensma TD3, De Cuypere G4, Richter-Appelt H5, Haraldsen IR6, Dikmans RE7, Cerwenka SC5, Kreukels BP3.

• 1Department of Medical Psychology, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Center, P.O. Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. t.vandegrift@vumc.nl.
• 2Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. t.vandegrift@vumc.nl.
• 3Department of Medical Psychology, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Center, P.O. Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
• 4Center of Sexology and Gender Problems, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium.
• 5Department of Sex Research and Forensic Psychiatry, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
• 6Department of Neuropsychiatry and Psychosomatic Medicine, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway.
• 7Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 
• Arch Sex Behav. 2016 Apr;45(3):607-17. doi: 10.1007/s10508-015-0657-3. Epub 2016 Jan 12.

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Masculinities & Ethnicities: Ethnic Differences in Drive for Muscularity in British Men & the Negotiation of Masculinity Hierarchies

Although relatively little is known about ethnic differences in men's drive for muscularity, recent theoretical developments suggest that ethnic minority men may desire greater muscularity to contest their positions of relative subordinate masculinity. 

This study tested this hypothesis in a sample of 185 White, 180 Black British, and 182 South Asian British men. Participants completed self-report measures of drive for muscularity, need for power, adherence to traditional cultural values, and ethnic group affiliation. 

Taking into account between-group differences in body mass index, results indicated that White men had significantly lower drive for muscularity than Black and South Asian men, who were not significantly different from each other. 

In addition, greater need for power was significantly associated with higher drive for muscularity in ethnic minority, but not White, men. Greater adherence to traditional cultural values, but not ethnic group affiliation, was associated with lower drive for muscularity in all ethnic groups. 

These results suggest that ethnic minority men may desire greater muscularity as a means of negotiating masculinity and attendant ideals of appearance.

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By:  Swami V1,2.

• 1Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, UK.
• 2Department of Psychology, HELP University College, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

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Shifts in Media Images of Women Appearance & Social Status from 1960 to 2010: A Content Analysis of Beauty Advertisements in Two Australian Magazines

Ageing well and successful ageing have become important themes to describe how older individuals should keep ageing at bay. Products and services aimed at controlling ageing have become associated with ageing well. 

In this study we aimed to analyse the representation of older women in advertisements specific to appearance and ageing. In particular, we sought to explore how ageing for women was presented in the media over a period 50 years and when advertisements began to use the term 'anti-ageing'. 

A content analysis of 710 advertisements from two prominent Australian women's magazines, from 1960 to 2010, was conducted. Analyses showed that advertisements provided a narrow range of images representing women's physical appearance. 

The underlying messages were that ageing is problematic and that it had become unforgivable to show any signs of ageing. Text contained in advertisements for beauty products from the two chosen Australian magazines often gave specific and prescriptive advice to women on ways to avoid losing their youthful appearance. 

It was concluded that media relay powerful messages to spread and modify cultural beliefs informing individuals of a range of options that propose liberation from the problem of ageing.

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By:  Brown A1, Knight T1.

• 1School of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood Campus, 23 Colstan Court, Mt. Eliza, Vic, 3930, Australia. 

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Women's Hairstyle & Men's Behavior: A Field Experiment

Little research has examined the effect of women's hairstyles on people's behavior. In a field study, male and female passersby, walking alone in the street, were observed while walking behind a female-confederate who dropped a glove and apparently was unaware of her loss. The confederate had long dark hair arranged in three different hairstyles: one with her hair falling naturally on her shoulders and her back, one with her hair tied in a ponytail, and one with her hair twisted in a bun. Results reported that the hairstyle had no effect on female passersby's helping behavior. However, it was found that the hairstyle influenced male passersby with men helping the confederate more readily when her hair fell naturally on her neck, shoulders and upper back.

Although hairstyles or hair characteristics are a common striking and obvious feature of appearance, psychological research focusing on women's hair has received little attention (Hinsz, Matz & Patience, 2001). Most of the research conducted on women's hair has examined hair color. Several studies reported that men but not women helped a woman with blond hair more favorably (Guéguen & Lamy, 2009; Lynn, 2009; Price, 2008) suggesting that hair color is an important factor for men when judging the attractiveness of a woman.

An additional feature of hair appearance studied by scientists is hair length. Several studies have reported that women's hair length influences how they are perceived by an observer. Using photographs of women targets with hair length varying across experimental conditions, Bereczkei and Mesko (2006) reported that males rated the woman target with long hair as more feminine, determined, intelligent, independent and healthy while the target with short hair was perceived to be more honest, caring and emotional. Terry and Krantz (1993) reported that long hair was associated with decreased social forcefulness. These results seem to contradict those reported by Bereczkei and Mesko (2006) but could be explained by cultural or period differences. More than 10 years separated the two studies and the experiment of Terry and Krantz (1993) was conducted in the United States while the experiment of Bereczkei and Mesko (2006) was conducted in Hungary. More recently, Swami, Furnham and Joshi (2008) using line drawings of female bodies reported that short hair targets were rated as significantly more fertile than long hair. The authors also reported an interaction effect between hair length and hair color: males but not females rated a blond target with short hair to be less healthy than a target with long hair, while the reverse effect was reported with a target with dark hair. With more realistic photos of women's faces, Mesko and Bereczkei (2004) reported that long hair was associated with higher ratings of femininity, youth, health and sexiness. These effects were found both with low or high attractive targets. Again this apparent contradiction between the findings could be explained by cultural factors (Mesko and Bereczkei, 2004 for Hungary and Swami et al., 2008 for the United Kingdom) or the targets used (Swami et al., 2008 for drawings of female bodies and Mesko and Bereczkei, 2004 for real photos of women's faces)...

  

Full article at:  http://goo.gl/yURTcr

By:  Guéguen N1.

• 1Université de Bretagne-Sud, Lorient, France. 

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