Investigating heterogeneity in violent offending liability among injection drug users from a developmental perspective

INTRODUCTION:

Violence is a major burden of harm among injecting drug users (IDU), however, the liability to violent offending is not well understood. The current study aimed to better understand differences in the liability to violence by determining whether IDU could be disaggregated into distinct violent offending classes, and determining the correlates of class membership.

METHODS:

A total of 300 IDU from Sydney, Australia were administered a structured interview examining the prevalence and severity of drug use and violent offending histories, as well as early life risk factors (maltreatment, childhood mental disorder, trait personality).

RESULTS:

IDU were disaggregated into four distinct latent classes, comprising a non-violent class (24%), an adolescent-onset persistent class (33%), an adult-onset transient class (24%) and an early-onset, chronic class (19%). Pairwise and group comparisons of classes on predispositional and substance use risks showed that the EARLY class had the poorest psychosocial risk profile, while the NON class had the most favourable. Multinomial logistic regression revealed that higher trait impulsivity and aggression scores, having a history of conduct disorder, frequent childhood abuse, and more problematic alcohol use, were independently associated with more temporally stable and severe violent offending. The model explained 67% of variance in class membership (χ²=207.7, df=51, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS:

IDU can be meaningfully disaggregated into distinct violent offending classes using developmental criteria. The age of onset of violence was indicative of class membership insomuch as that the extent of early life risk exposure was differentially associated with greater long-term liability to violence and drug use.

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By:  Torok M¹, Darke S², Shand F³, Kaye S².

¹National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Electronic address: m.torok@unsw.edu.au.

²National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.

³Black Dog Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.

Addict Behav. 2016 Apr 22;60:165-170. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.04.013. [Epub ahead of print] 

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The Path from Childhood Behavioural Disorders to Felony Offending: Investigating the Role of Adolescent Drinking, Peer Marginalization, and School Failure

Background

Although a pathway from childhood behavioural disorders to criminal offending is well-established, the aetiological processes remain poorly understood. Also, it is not clear if attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is predictive of crime in the absence of comorbid disruptive behaviour disorder (DBD).

Hypothesis

We examined two research questions: (1) Does ADHD have a unique effect on the risk of criminal offending, independently of DBD? (2) Is the effect of childhood behavioural disorders on criminal offending direct or mediated by adolescent processes related to school experience, substance misuse, and peers?

Method

Structural equation modelling, with latent variables, was applied to longitudinally collected data on 4,644 males from the 1986 Northern Finland Birth Cohort Study.

Results

Both ADHD and DBD separately predicted felony conviction risk. Most of these effects were mediated by adolescent alcohol use and low academic performance. The effect of DBD was stronger and included a direct pathway to criminal offending.

Conclusion

Findings were more consistent with the life course mediation hypothesis of pathways into crime, in that the effects of each disorder category were mediated by heavy drinking and educational failure. Preventing these adolescent risk outcomes may be an effective approach to closing pathways to criminal behaviour among behaviourally disordered children. However, as there was some evidence of a direct pathway from DBD, effective treatments targeting this disorder are also expected to reduce criminal offending.

Below:  Structural Equation Model (Standardised Path Estimates are Reported)

Full article at:   http://goo.gl/SoVWGH

  

By:  Jukka Savolainen, W. Alex Mason, Jonathan D. Bolen, Mary B. Chmelka, Tuula Hurtig, Hanna Ebeling, Tanja Nordström, and Anja Taanila

Jukka Savolainen, School of Criminology and CriminalJustice, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 321 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588-0561, USA, Phone 402-472-3677, FAX 402-472-6758

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Forgive and Forget, or Forgive and Regret? Whether Forgiveness Leads to Less or More Offending Depends on Offender Agreeableness

How does forgiveness predict the likelihood of reoffending? One survey study, one experiment, one 4-year longitudinal study, and one 2-week diary study examined the implications of forgiveness for reoffending in relationships. 

In all four studies, agreeableness interacted with partner forgiveness to predict subsequent offending; partner forgiveness was negatively associated with subsequent offending among more agreeable people but positively associated with subsequent offending among less agreeable people. 

Furthermore, Study 4 demonstrated a unique mechanism of each simple effect; relatively agreeable people engaged in fewer transgressions against more forgiving partners because they felt obligated to refrain from transgressing against such partners whereas relatively disagreeable people engaged in more transgressions against more forgiving partners because they perceived those partners were less easily angered. 

These studies indicate that completely understanding the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of forgiveness requires recognizing the dyadic nature of forgiveness and attending to qualities of the offender.

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By:  McNulty JK1, Russell VM2.

• 1Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA mcnulty@psy.fsu.edu.
• 2North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA. 
• Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2016 Mar 30. pii: 0146167216637841.

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Early Parenting Styles & Sexual Offending Behavior: A Comparative Study

Sexual offenders, in general, report problematic rearing practices from their parents, lacking however more empirical research on this topic regarding particular subtypes of offenders. 

The current study examined the relationship between early parenting styles and different types of sexual offending. A total of 113 sexual offenders (rapists, pedophilic and nonpedophilic child molesters), and 51 nonsexual offenders completed the EMBU (My Memories of Upbringing), the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the Socially Desirable Response Set Measure. 

Results showed that rapists were less likely to remember their fathers as being emotionally warm compared with nonsexual offenders and pedophilic child molesters. In addition, compared with rapists, pedophilic offenders perceived their mothers as having been less emotionally warm to them. 

Overall, results showed that certain developmental experiences with parents were able to distinguish between subtypes of offenders supporting an association between distal interpersonal factors and sexual offending.

These findings may have important implications for early intervention and prevention of sexual crimes. Further research using larger samples of pedophilic child molesters is recommended.

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By:  Sigre-Leirós V1, Carvalho J2, Nobre PJ3.

• 1Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal. Electronic address: vera.sigre.leiros@gmail.com.
• 2Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisboa, Portugal.
• 3Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal. 
• Int J Law Psychiatry. 2016 Mar 24. pii: S0160-2527(16)30055-3. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2016.02.042.

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Resilience & Professional Quality of Life in Staff Working with People with Intellectual Disabilities & Offending Behavior in Community Based and Institutional Settings

Staff in forensic services for people with intellectual disabilities (ID) are expected to deal with a wide range of emotional challenges when providing care. The potential impact of this demanding work has not been systematically explored previously. This article explores the professional quality of life (QoL) and the resilience (hardiness) of the staff in this setting. The Professional QoL questionnaire and the Disposional Resilience Scale were completed by staff (n=85, 80% response rate) in the Norwegian forensic service for ID offenders. Responses from staff working in institutional settings were compared to those from staff in local community services. Staff in the local community services had higher resilience scores compared to the staff in the institutional setting, (t=2.19; P<0.05). However in the other QoL and resilience domains there were no differences between the staff in the two settings. The greater sense of resilient control among community staff may be a function of both the number of service users they work with and the institutional demands they face. Even though these participants worked with relatively high risk clients, they did not report significantly impaired quality of life compared to other occupations.

...People with intellectual disabilities (ID) who are also offenders are some of the most difficult health service users to treat and historically they have also received little attention from researchers or the wider society.⁵The research that has been conducted has concentrated on offenders with mild ID within secure placements. Offenders with a moderate or more severe level of ID seldom enter the criminal justice system (CJS), as they are diverted into mental health services, ID services, or forensic mental health services. As a result, there is a dearth of studies exploring the needs and living conditions of offenders with moderate ID compared with offenders with mild ID.

Offenders with ID have many characteristics in common with offenders in the general population.^6,7 They tend to be young and male and have experienced social disadvantage, unstable environments, and financial instability.⁸ There is little research on how the characteristics of people with ID who are labeled offendersmay differ from those with ID who do not offend.⁹ Holland et al.⁷ proposed that two groups of offenders with ID can be distinguished according to whether they are known to the ID services. Amongst the smaller group who are known to services the term offence may often be confused with challenging behavior.¹⁰

The Norwegian system has quite restrictive policies regarding diversion of offenders with ID from the criminal justice system. There has been some focus on intellectual impairment among offenders,¹¹ but the government’s priorities are focused elsewhere on, for instance, building more prison accommodation, encouraging multidisciplinary cooperation in preventing recidivism, developing alternatives to imprisonment alongside better rehabilitation services and evidence-based research...¹²

Full article at:   http://goo.gl/EnYyTD

By:  Erik Søndenaa,1,2 Christian Lauvrud,1 Marita Sandvik,3 Kåre Nonstad,1 and Richard Whittington1,4

¹St. Olavs University Hospital, Forensic Department, Brøset, Trondheim, Norway, UK

²University College of Sør-Trøndelag, Department of Social Education, Trondheim, Norway, UK

³St. Olavs University Hospital, Forensic Unit for Offenders with Intellectual Disabilities, Brøset, Trondheim, Norway, UK

⁴University of Liverpool, Institute of Psychology, Health and Society, Health & Community Care Research Unit, Liverpool, UK

St. Olavs University Hospital, Forensic dep. Brøset, Postbox 1803, Lade, 7440 Trondheim, Norway. Phone: +47.992.44771.

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Like Parent Like Child? The Role of Delayed Childrearing in Breaking the Link Between Parent's Offending and Their Children's Antisocial Behavior

This paper investigates the impact of parents' history of violent offending, their age at first birth, and the interaction of the two on their adolescent children's violent behavior. We employ intergenerational longitudinal data from the Rochester Youth Development Study to estimate parental trajectories of offending from their early adolescence through early adulthood. We show that the particular shape of the parents' propensity of offending over time can interact with their age at first birth to protect their children from delinquency. We investigate these relationships for children at 6 and 10 years of age. We find that for some groups delaying childrearing can insulate children from their parents' offending.

Below: Three Hypothetical Paths of Offending

Below:  Violence Prevalence Trajectory Groups, Waves 1 – 10

Below:  Interquartile Ranges of Age at First Birth By Trajectory Group

...The more important research question is whether among those parents who put their children at risk by having participated in delinquent behavior, are there some relatively distal behaviors that can offset the effects of parental delinquency? That is, can even those parents who are in the high delinquent trajectory groups behave in ways that serve to protect their children from problematic behavior? Specifically, the question posed was whether having children later rather than earlier would serve to offset the effects of high parental involvement in delinquency.

The results answer the question affirmatively for those 10-year-old children of parents who were in the most delinquent trajectory group, the chronic group (group 5). The age of first birth is a protective factor for all three measures of problematic behavior for our 10-year-olds. Moreover, the impact of having parents who are in the group 5 is no longer significant once the interaction between age of first birth and group 5 membership is entered into the equation. It is important to note that this was not the case for the declining group (group 4). Their main effects of group membership on problematic behaviors were reduced to insignificance for two of the three outcomes when the interaction terms were entered into the equations. However, the interaction terms measuring the protective efficacy of delaying childbirth were not statistically significant. So, there is no protective effect of delaying childbirth. Although both group 4 and group 5 were similarly high in their offending patterns initially, the trajectory for group 4 sloped down while group 5 remained relatively high. In contrast, for group 4 (but not group 5) we found some evidence of a supportive effect for the protective role of age of first birth for the 6 year olds. The only significant impact of parental delinquency on the child’s problematic behavior was for the relationship between having parents in group 4 and the Achenbach delinquency scale. The interaction between age of first birth and parental membership in group 4 was significant as well, indicating that delaying having children protects children of relatively high risk parents even at the age of 6. The differences between 6- and 10-years-olds pose interesting questions about how mediators and protective factors might operate at different ages but we leave this for future research...

Full article at:   http://goo.gl/olPNYa

By:  Lizotte AJ1, Phillips MD1, Krohn MD2, Thornberry TP3, Bushway SD1, Schmidt NM4.

• 1School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany, Albany NY.
• 2Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law, University of Florida, Gainesville FL.
• 3Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Maryland, College Park MD.
• 4Institute on Urban Health Research, Northeastern University, Boston MA. 
• Justice Q. 2015;32(3):410-444.

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Verbal Ability and Persistent Offending: A Race-Specific Test of Moffitt's Theory

Theoretical questions linger over the applicability of the verbal ability model to African Americans and the social control theory hypothesis that educational failure mediates the effect of verbal ability on offending patterns. 

Accordingly, this paper investigates whether verbal ability distinguishes between offending groups within the context of Moffitt's developmental taxonomy. Questions are addressed with longitudinal data spanning childhood through young-adulthood from an ongoing national panel, and multinomial and hierarchical Poisson models (over-dispersed). 

In multinomial models, low verbal ability predicts membership in a life-course-persistent-oriented group relative to an adolescent-limited-oriented group. Hierarchical models indicate that verbal ability is associated with arrest outcomes among White and African American subjects, with effects consistently operating through educational attainment (high school dropout). 

The results support Moffitt's hypothesis that verbal deficits distinguish adolescent-limited- and life-course-persistent-oriented groups within race as well as the social control model of verbal ability.

[More on Moffitt's Theory:  https://goo.gl/yRsukX]

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By:  Bellair PE1, McNulty TL2, Piquero AR3.

• 1Paul Bellair (Ph.D., University at Albany, State University of New York) is a Professor in the Department of Sociology at The Ohio State University. His current research tests theoretical explanations for race differences in violence and recidivism, tests theory pertaining to the effect of verbal ability on delinquency, and examines the social networks and employment experiences of prisoners.
• 2Thomas McNulty is an Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of Georgia. His specialty areas include criminology, urban sociology, and research methods. His most recent work focuses on developing and testing multilevel theoretical models of racial and ethnic differences in crime/violence, with emphasis on the role of individual differences within the context of family, school, and neighborhood environments.
• 3Alex Piquero is Ashbel Smith Professor of Criminology at the University of Texas at Dallas, Adjunct Professor Key Centre for Ethics, Law, Justice, and Governance, Griffith University Australia, Faculty Affiliate, Center for Violence and Injury Prevention George Warren Brown School of Social Work Washington University in St. Louis, and Co-Editor, Journal of Quantitative Criminology. His research interests include criminal careers, criminological theory, and quantitative research methods. He has received several research, teaching, and mentoring awards and is Fellow of both the American Society of Criminology and the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. 
• Justice Q. 2016;33(3):455-480. Epub 2014 May 21.

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Is Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorder Associated with Reductions in Criminal Offending? A National Data Linkage Cohort Study in England

BACKGROUND:

This is the first English national study of change in criminal offending following treatment for alcohol use disorder (AUD).

METHODS:

All adults treated for AUD by all publicly funded treatment services during April 2008-March 2009 (n=53,017), with data linked to the Police National Computer (April 2006-November 2011). Pre-treatment offender sub-populations were identified by Latent Profile Analysis. The outcome measure was the count of recordable criminal offences during two-year follow-up after admission. A mixed-effects, Poisson regression modelled outcome, adjusting for demographics and clinical information, the latent classes, and treatment exposure covariates.

RESULTS:

Twenty-two percent of the cohort committed one or more offences in the two years pre-treatment (n=11,742; crude rate, 221.5 offenders per 1000). During follow-up, the number of offenders and offences fell by 23.5% and 24.0%, respectively (crude rate, 69.4 offenders per 1000). During follow-up, a lower number of offences was associated with: completing treatment (adjusted incident rate ratio [IRR] 0.82; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.79-0.85); receiving inpatient detoxification (IRR 0.84; CI 0.80-0.89); or community pharmacological therapy (IRR 0.89; CI 0.84-0.96). Reconviction was reduced in the sub-population characterised by driving offences (n=1,140; 11.7%), but was relatively high amongst acquisitive (n=768; 58.3% reconvicted) and violent offending sub-populations (n=602; 77.6% reconvicted).

CONCLUSIONS:

Reduced offending was associated with successful completion of AUD treatment and receiving inpatient and pharmacological therapy, but not enrolment in psychological and residential interventions. Treatment services (particularly those providing psychological therapy and residential care) should be alert to offending, especially violent and acquisitive crime, and enhance crime reduction interventions.

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By:  Willey H1, Eastwood B2, Gee IL3, Marsden J4.

• 1Alcohol, Drug and Tobacco Division, Health and Wellbeing Directorate, Public Health England, United Kingdom.
• 2Alcohol, Drug and Tobacco Division, Health and Wellbeing Directorate, Public Health England, United Kingdom; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London,United Kingdom.
• 3Centre for Public Health, Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom.
• 4Alcohol, Drug and Tobacco Division, Health and Wellbeing Directorate, Public Health England, United Kingdom; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London,United Kingdom. Electronic address: john.marsden@kcl.ac.uk. 
• Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016 Jan 29. pii: S0376-8716(16)00048-X. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.020. 

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Patient Outcomes Following Discharge from Secure Psychiatric Hospitals: Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis

Background

Secure hospitals are a high-cost, low-volume service consuming around a fifth of the overall mental health budget in England and Wales.

Aims

A systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse outcomes after discharge along with a comparison with rates in other clinical and forensic groups in order to inform public health and policy.

Method

We searched for primary studies that followed patients discharged from a secure hospital, and reported mortality, readmissions or reconvictions. We determined crude rates for all adverse outcomes.

Results

In total, 35 studies from 10 countries were included, involving 12 056 patients out of which 53% were violent offenders. The crude death rate for all-cause mortality was 1538 per 100 000 person-years (95% CI 1175–1901). For suicide, the crude death rate was 325 per 100 000 person-years (95% CI 235–415). The readmission rate was 7208 per 100 000 person-years (95% CI 5916–8500). Crude reoffending rates were 4484 per 100 000 person-years (95% CI 3679–5287), with lower rates in more recent studies.

Conclusions

There is some evidence that patients discharged from forensic psychiatric services have lower offending outcomes than many comparative groups. Services could consider improving interventions aimed at reducing premature mortality, particularly suicide, in discharged patients.

Below:  Crude mortality rates of discharged forensic psychiatry patients for all-cause mortality in England and Wales compared with other countries.  Rates are per 100 000 person-years. Weights are from random-effects analysis.

Below:  Psychiatric hospital readmission rates for discharged forensic psychiatric patients per 100 000 person-years

Below:  Repeat offending rates for discharged forensic patients per 100 000 person-years. Weights are from random-effects analysis. The two outliers (combined no. reoffenders = 6) are not shown.

Below:  Repeat violent offending rates for discharged forensic patients per 100 000 person-years

Below:  Prevalence ratios comparing reoffending rates of released prisoners with forensic psychiatric patients

By:  Seena Fazel, Zuzanna Fimińska, Christopher Cocks, and Jeremy Coid

Seena Fazel, MD, Zuzanna Fimińska, MSc, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Christopher Cocks, MD, Department of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Jeremy Coid, MD, Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine, Queen Mary University London, London, UK

Correspondence: Seena Fazel, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford OX3 7JX. UK. Email:ku.ca.xo.hcysp@lezaf.anees

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Adult-Onset Offending: A Neglected Reality? Findings From a Contemporary British General Population Cohort

There is disagreement in the literature as to whether there are any true adult-onset offenders. The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence and correlates of adult-onset offenders in a contemporary British general population cohort consisting of 739 individuals aged between 18 and 25 years. 

Sixteen percent of participants reported offending for the first time after the age of 18. It is concluded that adult-onset exists and deserves to be studied further. Adult-onset offenders were more likely to report using drugs, associating with deviant peers, and having mental health problems in adulthood than non-offenders. Compared with early-onset offenders, the adult-onset offenders were people with a stronger attachment to school, which may have protected them from the risk of offending in adolescence. 

It is possible that when that protection was removed in adulthood and they were exposed to negative life events, such as drug use and mental illness, they became involved in crime for the first time.

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By:   Sapouna M1.

• 1University of the West of Scotland, Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, UK maria.sapouna@uws.ac.uk.
• Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2015 Dec 29. pii: 0306624X15622429.

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Maltreatment, Child Welfare, and Recidivism in a Sample of Deep-End Crossover Youth

Although research has oft-documented a maltreatment-delinquency link, the effect of involvement in-and timing of-child welfare system involvement on offending has received less attention. We examine whether the timing of child welfare involvement has differential effects on recidivism of deep-end juvenile offenders (youth who have been adjudicated delinquent by the court and placed in juvenile justice residential programs). 

The current study uses a large, diverse sample of 12,955 youth completing juvenile justice residential programs between 1 January 2010 and 30 June 2013 in Florida (13 % female, 55 % Black, 11 % Hispanic). Additionally, we explore the direct effects of childhood traumatic events on delinquency, as well as their indirect effects through child welfare involvement using structural equation modeling. 

The findings indicate that adverse childhood experiences fail to exert a direct effect on recidivism, but do exhibit a significant indirect effect on recidivism through child welfare involvement, which is itself associated with recidivism. This means that while having exposures to more types of childhood traumatic events does not, in and of itself, increase the likelihood of re-offending, effects of such experiences operate through child welfare placement. 

Differences in the effects of maltreatment timing and of adverse childhood experiences are observed across sex and race/ethnicity subgroups. Across all racial subgroups, exposures to adverse childhood experiences have a significant effect on the likelihood of child welfare placement, yet child welfare placement exerts a significant effect on recidivism for White and Hispanic youth, but not for Black youth. Only Hispanic female and White male youth with overlapping child welfare and juvenile justice cases (open cases in both systems at the same time during the study period) were more likely to recidivate than their delinquent-only counterpart youth. 

Crossover status (child welfare and juvenile justice involvement, whether prior or open cases) was essentially irrelevant with respect to the re-offending of Black youth completing juvenile justice residential programs. 

The findings indicate the effects of exposure to adverse childhood experiences, and child welfare system and juvenile justice system involvement on re-offending are not uniform across subgroups of youth but that earlier child welfare involvement is more detrimental than concurrent child welfare system involvement when it does matter.

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By:   Baglivio MT1, Wolff KT2, Piquero AR3, Bilchik S4, Jackowski K5, Greenwald MA6, Epps N7.

• 1G4S Youth Services, LLC, 6302 Benjamin Rd., Suite 400, Tampa, FL, 33625, USA. Michael.Baglivio@us.g4s.com.
• 2John Jay College of Criminal Justice, 524 West 59th St., New York, NY, 10019, USA. kwolff@jjay.cuny.edu.
• 3University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Rd., GR31, Richardson, TX, 75080, USA. apiquero@utdallas.edu.
• 4Center for Juvenile Justice Reform, 3300 Whitehaven St. NW, R. 5045, Washington, DC, 20007, USA. Shay.bilchik@gmail.com.
• 5G4S Youth Services, LLC, 6302 Benjamin Rd., Suite 400, Tampa, FL, 33625, USA. Katherine.Jackowski@us.g4s.com.
• 6Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, 2737 Centerview Drive, Tallahassee, FL, 32399, USA. Mark.Greenwald@djj.state.fl.us.
• 7Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, 2737 Centerview Drive, Tallahassee, FL, 32399, USA. Nathan.Epps@djj.state.fl.us.

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