The Role of the Illusion in the Construction of Erotic Desire: Narratives from Heterosexual Men Who Have Occasional Sex with Transgender Women

Little is known about men's sexual desire for and erotic attraction to male-to-female transgender women. To better understand how erotic desire is constructed, this study examined the narratives of a sample of heterosexual men who had had an occasional sexual encounter with a transgender woman. 

Open-ended qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 heterosexual men who reported at least one sexual encounter with a transgender woman in the previous 12 months. Using principles of Grounded Theory, three themes emerged: 

1. the erotic desire that transpired from a transgender woman's construction of her femininity, 
2. the sexual act that dictated the specific navigation of a transgender woman's penis and 
3. the sexual dissonance that resulted from being a heterosexually identified man having sex with a partner who had a penis. 

These themes reflected how the participants defined and negotiated their sexual encounters, both psychologically through their understanding of sex with a transgender woman with a penis, and physically through the navigation of specific sex acts. 

The role of the 'illusion' was central to the meaning and construction of erotic desire. These narratives provided another framework for continuing discourse on the complexity of erotic desire.

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By:  Reback CJ1,2, Kaplan RL1,3, Bettcher TM4, Larkins S2.

• 1 Friends Research Institute, Inc. , Los Angeles , USA.
• 2 Integrated Substance Abuse Programs, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior , University of California at Los Angeles , California , USA.
• 3 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences; Bixby Center for Global Reproductive Health , University of California at San Francisco , San Francisco , USA.
• 4 Department of Philosophy , California State University , Los Angeles , USA. 
• Cult Health Sex. 2016 Mar 11:1-13. 

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Sexual Dysfunction in Men Diagnosed as Substance Use Disorder

Illicit drugs are often used as aphrodisiacs to enhance sexual performance and/or pleasure; however, the available data suggest that most illicit drugs have adverse effects on erection, sexual desire and ejaculation latency in males and that these effects are not fully understood. 

This study aimed to determine the effect of illicit drug abuse on male sexual function, based on the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) score. This descriptive study was conducted at the Alcohol and Substance Research Treatment and Education Center, Ankara, Turkey. Males diagnosed as substance use disorder according to DSM-IV (n = 101) were included as the patient group, and age-matched healthy male volunteers (n = 43) were included as the control group. A 30-item sociodemographic interview form developed by researchers and the 15-item IIEF were administered to all the participants. Data were compared between the patient and control groups. 

Mean IIEF score was 46.7 ± 3.3 in the patients that used alcohol, 23.7 ± 3.3 in the opioid users, 34.1 ± 5.3 in the ecstasy users, 43.5 ± 4.2 in the cannabis users and 55.3 ± 1.6 in the control group. There was not a significant difference between the alcohol and cannabis users' mean IIEF scores and that in the control group, whereas there was a significant difference between the opioid and ecstasy users' mean IIEF scores and that in the control group. All IIEF subscale scores in the opioid users were significantly lower than in the control group. IIEF erectile function, sexual desire and general satisfaction subscale scores were significantly lower in the ecstasy users than in the control group. In the alcohol users only, the IIEF general satisfaction subscale score was lower than in the control group (P < 0.005).

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By:  Kumsar NA1, Kumsar Ş2, Dilbaz N3.

• 1Sakarya University Training and Research Hospital Psychiatry Clinic, Sakarya, Turkey.
• 2Sakarya University Training and Research Hospital Urology Clinic, Sakarya, Turkey.
• 3Üsküdar University NP Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey. 
• Andrologia. 2016 Mar 4. doi: 10.1111/and.12566. 

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Sexual Function after Partial Penectomy: A Prospectively Study From China

The Purpose of this study was to evaluate the sexual function after partial penectomy for penile carcinoma patients. 

Between January 2010 and May 2013, patients treated with partial penectomy at our institution were prospectively enrolled in this study. Sexual function (IIEF-15), age, body mass index, penile length in the flaccid state after partial penectomy (PL), treatment, having a partner and psychological factors (SAS scores and SDS scores) were assessed. Univariate and multivariate linear regression analyses were performed. 43 patients were included in our study. 

The median age was 56 years, and the median PL was 4 cm. The preoperative IIEF-15, SAS, SDS scores were significantly different from the postoperative scores. There was no statistically significant difference between the patients treated with partial penectomy and partial penectomy+ lymphadenectomy on IIEF-15 scores. Age was negatively associated with erectile function, sexual desire, and overall satisfaction; PL was positively associated with intercourse satisfaction; SAS score was negatively associated with erectile function, orgasmic function, sexual desire, and intercourse satisfaction. 

Our preliminary findings suggest that the sexual function after partial penectomy was significantly reduced. The sexual function was negatively affected by age and anxiety but positively affected by PL.

Full article at:  http://goo.gl/PO8ZMV

By:  Cui Yu,1 Chen Hequn,1 Liu Longfei,1 Chen Minfeng,1 Chen Zhi,1 Zeng Feng,1 Chen Jinbo,1 Qi Lin,1 and Zu Xiongbinga,1

¹Department of Urology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410000, China

^aEmail: moc.621@yxbxuz

Sci Rep. 2016; 6: 21862.

Published online 2016 Feb 23. doi:  10.1038/srep21862

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Cathinones Use in Paris

BACKGROUND:

The pattern of recreational drug use has changed over the last decade and now includes a multitude of substances sold as "research chemicals" or new psychoactive substances, "NPS". In France, synthetic cathinones emerged in 2008 (while first mentioned by the French police force in 2007 first alerts among users appeared in 2008) and have grown to be popular drugs of abuse. Under the Official Journal dated 11th June 2010, only mephedrone has been listed as narcotics but "designer drugs" have synthesized new substitute cathinones in order to avoid anti-drug laws. However, since July 2012, in France, all synthetic drugs from the cathinones family have been banned and listed as narcotics following the example of United Kingdom. Despite their recent classification and inclusion on narcotic list, they are readily available on Internet and used widely. Paris Addictovigilance Centre observed a signal of derivate cathinones abuse (21 cases over a two-year period).

OBJECTIVE:

Paris Addictovigilance Centre and Marmottan Hospital wanted to describe the use of cathinones in the Paris area and alert the health care community about the abuse identification and risk assessment problems of these compounds. After a review of derivated cathinone's chemical structure, pharmacology and toxicology, this article seeks to provide patricians with a clinical description and treatment's modality.

RESULTS:

Most users of synthetic cathinones will experience euphoria, increased energy, talkativeness, openness and increased sexual arousal. Signs and symptoms of toxicity are consistent with a sympathomimetic toxidrome. The main reasons for care access are psychiatric (hallucinations, psychotic symptoms, agitation) and addiction disorders. Somatic complications were described with various patterns of symptoms such as headache, tachycardia, confusional states, rhabdomyolysis with renal failure or serotonin syndrome. The most important fact is the apparition of the "slam" phenomenon among men who have sex with men (MSM). The "slam" is a compound of three characteristic elements: injection, sexual party and psychostimulant drug. According to users, "slam" is convenient for group sex and is used it to put them into a good mood and a disinhibition state. These compounds cause fast dependence syndrome with strong craving and prolonged psychiatric symptoms and increase infectious risk (HIV, VHC, VHB…). The cathinones family is not detected in conventional urine drug screenings. We point out the lack of confirmatory analytic testing data which remains the only way to determine the actual etiology of the clinical effects observed since drug users do not always know exactly what they took. These substances can be identified by special analyses using gas chromatography or liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy technology.

CONCLUSION:

This injection drug is used in order to increase sexual desire, delay orgasm and decrease sexual inhibition and is prevalent in many studies on MSM samples. Cathinones would popularize the "slam". Harm reduction policy requires specific MSM interventions on both sexual and drug addiction networks.

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By:  Batisse A1, Grégoire M2, Marillier M3, Fortias M3, Djezzar S3.

• 1CEIP-Addictovigilance, hôpital Fernand-Widal, 200, rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis, 75010 Paris cedex 10, France. Electronic address: anne.batisse@lrb.aphp.fr.
• 2Centre Marmottan, 17-19, rue d'Armaillé, 75017 Paris, France. Electronic address: murielgreg@hotmail.com.
• 3CEIP-Addictovigilance, hôpital Fernand-Widal, 200, rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis, 75010 Paris cedex 10, France. 
• Encephale. 2016 Feb 1. pii: S0013-7006(15)00163-3. doi: 10.1016/j.encep.2015.09.002. 

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Partners’ Similarity in Differentiation of Self is Associated with Higher Sexual Desire: A Quantitative Dyadic Study

The relationship between sexual desire and differentiation of self in couples has been frequently discussed in clinical literature but lacks empirical support. This exploratory study investigates the associations between individual and dyadic levels of sexual desire, differentiation of self, and couple satisfaction. 

Similarities and discrepancies in sexual desire and differentiation of self between partners were especially targeted. Partners were expected to have a lower discrepancy of differentiation of self than unrelated individuals (Bowen's similarity hypothesis). Partners’ discrepancy in differentiation of self was expected to be negatively associated with sexual desire, and higher levels of sexual desire and differentiation in the dyad were expected be positively associated with couple satisfaction. 

Results suggest that partners’ similarity regarding differentiation of self predicted individual sexual desire. Other findings suggest that couple satisfaction was positively associated with both sexual desire and differentiation of self. Limitations and clinical implications are discussed.

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By:  Luana Cunha Ferreira^a*, Isabel Narciso^a, Rosa Ferreira Novo^a &Cícero Roberto Pereira^b

• ^a Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
• ^b Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

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Postcoital Dysphoria: Prevalence and Psychological Correlates

Introduction

While problems related to desire, arousal, and orgasm have been subject to extensive epidemiologic research, women's postcoital reactions and feelings, and postcoital dysphoria (PCD) remains under‐researched.

Aim

The study examined the association between women's attachment anxiety and avoidance, differentiation of self, and the experience of PCD symptoms.

Methods

Two hundred and thirty female university students completed an online survey.

Main Outcome Measures

The Female Sexual Function Index, the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, the Differentiation of SelfInventory‐Revised, and study specific questions.

Results

Forty‐six percent of respondents reported experiencing PCD symptoms at least once in their lifetime with 5.1% experiencing PCD symptoms a few times within the past 4 weeks. A small but significant inverse correlation was found between lifetime prevalence of PCD and sexual functioning (r = −0.16). While the regression model accounted for 22% of variance in lifetime prevalence of PCD, attachment and differentiation of self variables did not account for significant variance.

Conclusions

The findings confirm that PCD is under‐recognized and under‐researched. There appears to be no relationship between PCD and intimacy in close relationships. Further research is necessary to understand the subjective experience of PCD and to inform the development of a reliable measure.

Full article at:   http://goo.gl/0D9ZBG

By:  Robert D Schweitzer, PhD, 1 Jessica O'Brien, MA (Clin Psy.), 1 and Andrea Burri, PhD 2

¹School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia

²Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Corresponding author.

Corresponding Author: Robert Schweitzer, PhD, School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, Qld 4059, Australia. Tel: +61 7 3870 9596; Fax: +61 7 3138 0486; E‐mail: ua.ude.tuq@reztiewhcs.r

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Sex and Eating: Relationships Based on Wanting and Liking

Sex and eating may have behavioral and psychological relationships and have cortical regions in common. This research investigated the general relationship between sex and eating from a reward perspective among the general population. 

Two-hundred and sixty-one Chinese participants were recruited via the internet (136 males, 125 females, mean age 30.46 years) to fill in questionnaires about wanting and liking for sex and eating. The results revealed that 

• First, there was a positive correlation between wanting for sex and wanting to eat only for males. 
• Second, the relationship between liking for sex and eating was also positive for males and not significant in females. 
• Third, the correlation between sociosexual orientation and wanting to eat was significant only in females, and there was no significant correlation between sociosexual orientation and liking for eating. 
• Fourth, emotional sex cravings (or emotional sexual activity) was positively correlated with emotional food cravings (or emotional eating behavior), with a higher magnitude correlation in males than females. 
• Finally, analysis of wanting (liking) models of sex and eating for males and females revealed three models for wanting among females: high wanting, low wanting for eating, and low wanting for sex; and two models for wanting among males: high wanting and low wanting. 

Liking for sex and eating among females consisted of two types of model: high liking and low liking; whereas three type models existed for males: high liking for sex, high liking for eating, and low liking. 

In general, our research revealed that, as with other natural reward, sex and eating have considerable commonality and are related in numerous ways.

Full article at:   http://goo.gl/zZ2ALg

By:  Ying Kang, Lijun Zheng, and Yong Zheng*

School of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China

Edited by: Sonja Yokum, Oregon Research Institute, USA

Reviewed by: Sabine Frank, University of Tübingen, Germany; Erica Schulte, University of Michigan, USA

*Correspondence: Yong Zheng, nc.ude.uws@ygnehz

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Masturbation and Pornography Use among Coupled Heterosexual Men with Decreased Sexual Desire: How Many Roles of Masturbation?

The relation between masturbation and sexual desire has not been systematically studied. The present study assessed the association between masturbation and pornography use and the predictors and correlates of frequent masturbation (several times a week or more often) among coupled heterosexual men who reported decreased sexual desire. 

Analyses were carried out on a subset of 596 men with decreased sexual desire (mean age = 40.2 years) who were recruited as part of a large online study on male sexual health in 3 European countries. 

A majority of the participants (67%) reported masturbating at least once a week. Among men who masturbated frequently, 70% used pornography at least once a week. A multivariate assessment showed that sexual boredom, frequent pornography use, and low relationship intimacy significantly increased the odds of reporting frequent masturbation among coupled men with decreased sexual desire. 

These findings point to a pattern of pornography-related masturbation that can be dissociated from partnered sexual desire and can fulfill diverse purposes. 

Clinical implications include the importance of exploring specific patterns of masturbation and pornography use in the evaluation of coupled men with decreased sexual desire.

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By:  Ana Carvalheira^a*, Bente Træen^b & Aleksandar Stulhofer^c

^a Department of Clinical Psychology, ISPA-University Institute, Lisbon, Portugal

^b Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

^c Department of Sociology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

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Sexual Motives in Heterosexual Women With and Without Sexual Difficulties

Previous research indicates that women with sexual problems may have different reasons for engaging in sex than women who are not experiencing sexual problems. 

The current study investigated whether reasons for sex differed by women reporting high versus low overall sexual functioning, as assessed by the FSFI. As low desire and inability to achieve orgasm are the two most commonly reported sexual problems for women, the study also investigated whether women with and without problems specifically related to sexual desire or orgasm cited different reasons for sex. 

The sample was comprised of 446 heterosexual women between the ages of 18 and 61 who completed an online questionnaire assessing reasons for sex and sexual functioning. Women with low sexual functioning overall were more likely to endorse insecurity reasons for sex, while women with high sexual functioning overall were more likely to endorse physical reasons for sex. 

Women experiencing low desire specifically were less likely to endorse emotional and physical reasons for sex than women without desire difficulties. Women experiencing orgasm difficulties specifically were more likely to endorse insecurity reasons for sex than women without orgasm difficulties. 

The variance accounted for was low in all cases. This research offers insights into the important but limited role sexual functioning may play in the broader context of women's sexual motivations.

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By:  Watson E1, Milhausen RR2, Wood J3, Maitland S4.

• 1 University of Guelph, Family Relations and Applied Nutrition , 50 Stone Rd East, MacDonald Institute , Guelph , Ontario , Canada.
• 2 University of Guelph, Family Relations and Applied Nutrition, Macdonald Institute , 50 Stone Rd., Guelph , Ontario , N1G 2W1 Canada.
• 3 University of Guelph, Psychology, Blackwood Hall , 50 Stone Rd., Guelph , Ontario , Canada.
• 4 University of Guelph, Family Relations and Applied Nutrition, MacDonald Institute , 50 Stone Rd., Guelph , Ontario , N1G 2W1 Canada.
• J Sex Marital Ther. 2016 Jan 6:0. [Epub ahead of print] 

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"Sex Is Sweet": Women from Low-Income Contexts in Uganda Talk About Sexual Desire and Pleasure

In many patriarchal societies in Africa, heterosexuality is privileged as the single legitimate form of sexual interaction; other sexualities are marginalised because they are perceived as un-African, abnormal, sinful and are repressed. Female sexuality too is subordinated and controlled with it being reduced to women's conventional mothering roles that are conflated with their reproductive capacities. However, there is evidence that women in heterosexual relations have the opportunity to assert themselves and to define pleasurable sex. 

Drawing on in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with married women in heterosexual unions the article examines the extent to which women from low-income contexts in Uganda express their sexual agency. 

The findings show that within heterosexual relations, these women are able to express their sexual desires freely and negotiate diverse options for pleasurable sexual experiences. The evidence indicates the need for acknowledging variations within heterosexual experiences and the possibility of positive heterosexual relationships that resist hegemonic masculinity and subordinated femininity.

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By:   Muhanguzi FK1.

• 1Senior Lecturer, School of Women and Gender Studies, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, UGANDA. Electronic address: floramuha@yahoo.com. 

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Neural Substrates of Sexual Desire in Individuals with Problematic Hypersexual Behavior

Studies on the characteristics of individuals with hypersexual disorder have been accumulating due to increasing concerns about problematic hypersexual behavior (PHB). Currently, relatively little is known about the underlying behavioral and neural mechanisms of sexual desire. 

Our study aimed to investigate the neural correlates of sexual desire with event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Twenty-three individuals with PHB and 22 age-matched healthy controls were scanned while they passively viewed sexual and nonsexual stimuli. The subjects' levels of sexual desire were assessed in response to each sexual stimulus. Relative to controls, individuals with PHB experienced more frequent and enhanced sexual desire during exposure to sexual stimuli. Greater activation was observed in the caudate nucleus, inferior parietal lobe, dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus, thalamus, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the PHB group than in the control group. In addition, the hemodynamic patterns in the activated areas differed between the groups. 

Consistent with the findings of brain imaging studies of substance and behavior addiction, individuals with the behavioral characteristics of PHB and enhanced desire exhibited altered activation in the prefrontal cortex and subcortical regions. In conclusion, our results will help to characterize the behaviors and associated neural mechanisms of individuals with PHB.

Below:  The event-related paradigm for sexual desire

Full article at: http://goo.gl/PwQk0O

By:   Ji-Woo Seok and Jin-Hun Sohn*

Department of Psychology, Brain Research Institute, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, South Korea

Edited by: Morten L. Kringelbach, University of Oxford, UK and University of Aarhus, Denmark, UK

Reviewed by: Matthias Brand, University Duisburg-Essen, Germany; Janniko Georgiadis, University Medical Center Groningen, Netherlands

*Correspondence: Jin-Hun Sohn ; Email: rk.ca.unc@nhoshj

 

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Why Are Men Satisfied or Dissatisfied with Penile Implants? A Mixed Method Study on Satisfaction with Penile Prosthesis Implantation

Introduction

Studies have demonstrated high levels of satisfaction with penile prosthesis implantation (PPI). However, qualitative research exploring the experience of PPI through men's narratives is scarce.

Aim

The main goals were to analyze (i) the level of sexual satisfaction (quantitatively), and (ii) the reasons for satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction with PPI (qualitatively).

Method
Participants were 47 men with erectile dysfunction who underwent surgery between 2003 and 2012, placed by a single surgeon. Structured telephone interviews were carried out.

Main Outcome Measures

Satisfaction with PPI was a qualitative and quantitative measure assessed through the following four items: (i) “Would you repeat the PPI surgery?”; (ii) “Would you recommend the PPI surgery?”; (iii) “How satisfied are you with the PP?”; and (iv) “Could you explain the motives of your satisfaction/dissatisfaction?”.

Results

The majority of men (79%) reported to be satisfied with PPI. Content analysis revealed four main themes for men's satisfaction with the PPI: (i) psychological factors were reported 54 times (n = 54) and included positive emotions, self-esteem, confidence, enhancement of male identity, major live change, and self-image; (ii) improvement of sexual function was reported 54 times (n = 54) and referred to achievement of vaginal penetration, increase of sexual desire, sexual satisfaction, penis size, and improvement of erectile function; (iii) relationship factors were reported 11 times (n = 11) and referred to relationship improvement and the possibility of giving pleasure to the partner; and (iv) improvement in urinary function (n = 3).

Conclusions

The level of satisfaction with the implementation of penile prostheses is very high, therefore constituting a treatment for erectile dysfunction with a positive impact on the experience of men at sexual, psychological and relational level.

Full article at: http://goo.gl/y1erz8

By:   Ana Carvalheira PhD^1,,Rita Santana MA²and Nuno M. Pereira PhD³

William James Center for Research, ISPA—University Institute, Lisbon, Portugal

ISPA-University Institute, Lisbon, Portugal

iSex-Association of Advanced Study of Human Sexuality, Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal

*Corresponding Author: Ana Carvalheira, PhD, William James Center for Research, ISPA—University Institute, R. Jardim do Tabaco 34, 1149-041 Lisbon, Portugal. Tel: +351 919 253 757; Fax: +351-218-860-954; E-mail: acarvalheira@ispa.pt  

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Momentary Desire for Sexual Intercourse and Momentary Emotional Intimacy Associated with Perceived Relationship Quality and Physical Intimacy in Heterosexual Emerging Adult Couples

Sexual desire and emotional intimacy are central to relationships, yet little is known about how these feelings vary within and between partners or relate to dyad functioning. We explored magnitude and stability of momentary sexual desire and emotional intimacy in relation to quality and functioning of heterosexual relationships. 

After reporting perceived relationship quality and physical intimacy enjoyment, members of 18 emerging adult heterosexual couples reported momentary partner-specific sexual desire and emotional intimacy several times a day for two weeks (2,224 reports). Mean and mean squared successive difference (MSSD) characterized magnitude and stability, respectively, of the momentary states. 

Regression models of relationship outcomes examined influence of the male versus female partner having greater or more stable desire and intimacy. Sexual desire and emotional intimacy magnitude and stability were associated with relationship quality and physical intimacy enjoyment differently for men versus women. Gender-specific differences between partners also predicted relationship outcomes. Men particularly perceived higher relationship quality and enjoyed physical intimacy more when they had higher and more stable sexual desire and their female partners had more stable emotional intimacy. 

Partner differences in momentary sexual desire and emotional intimacy may contribute to understanding quality and functioning of heterosexual relationships.

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By:  Shrier LA1,2, Blood EA2,3,4.

• 1a Division of Adolescent/Young Adult Medicine , Boston Children's Hospital.
• 2b Department of Pediatrics , Harvard Medical School.
• 3c Clinical Research Center , Boston Children's Hospital.
• 4d Department of Community and Family Medicine , Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth. 

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Are Vegans the Same As Vegetarians? The Effect of Meatless Diets on Perceptions of Masculinity

Food and food consumption matters in interpersonal interactions. Foods consumed can affect how a person is perceived by others in terms of morality, likeability, and gender. Food consumption can be used as a strategy for gendered presentation, either in terms of what foods are consumed or in the amount of food consumed. Finally, foods themselves are associated with gender. 

Previous research (Browarnik, 2012; Ruby & Heine, 2011) shows inconsistent patterns in the association between vegetarianism and masculinity. The current research conceptually replicates and extends this research by including the explicit label of vegetarian. The four studies in this article provide increased information about the effects of diet on gendered perceptions. 

• Study 1 that vegetarian and omnivorous targets are rated equally in terms of masculinity. 
• Study 2 shows that perceptions of vegetarians and vegans are similar, though perceptions of vegetarians are more variable. 
• Study 3 shows that veganism leads perceptions of decreased masculinity relative to omnivores. 
• Finally, Study 4 tests one possible mechanism for the results of Study 3, that it is the choice to be vegan that impacts perceptions of gender. 

Implications include increased knowledge about how meatless diets can affect the perceptions of gender in others. Multiple directions for future research as discussed.

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By:  Thomas MA1.

• 1Department of Psychology, Earlham College. Electronic address: thomama@earlham.edu. 

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